Objectives

At the end of this topic you will be able to:

• recognise some historical aspects of the development of the counselling profession
• identify components of a profession
• discuss the role of formal and informal advocacy in raising the profile of the counselling profession
• apply the concept of a vocation to this profession
• list some challenges to be overcome before counselling stands as a fully recognised profession in Australia
• discuss the professional credentialling process currently underway in Australia
• name some professional associations for counsellors and similar helping professions in Australia
• name some educational and practice requirements to become a member of a relevant professional association, and link these requirements to your own career aspirations.

Introduction

In this topic we will attempt to place ‘counselling’ in a professional context, with particular emphasis on the Australian arena. If working outside of Australia, the concepts of professionalism are not very different – some international accrediting bodies are listed in the list of resources for this unit, and you may wish to compare the information provided by these associations.

Just as defining counselling was challenging, it is not straightforward to define its placement as a profession. The profession of counselling is currently at an exciting stage of evolution in Australia with dialogue occurring between accrediting bodies, educational institutions, practitioners, aspiring members, government departments, funding bodies, and service users. Developments are occurring both proactively and reactively, the whole process being driven by social, environmental and economic forces. It is a thought-provoking time to be a student in this field.

Some historical perspectives

Hackney and Cormier (2005, p. 2) point out that counselling has a long history and that there are connections with ‘ancient healing practices’ in Egypt. One could argue that the oracle in Delphi, the sweat lodges of the Indians and many of the practices of indigenous peoples could be classified as some form of counselling. And what about confessions in the Catholic church, consultations with shamans or reading the runes? Often, these practices involved the giving of advice by elders or wise ones.

The early practice of modern counselling began as vocational guidance (Whiteley, 1984, cited in Feltham, 1995). It commenced with the work of Frank Parsons in 1909 who saw the need to help young people make effective career decisions in work environments which had been markedly changed by the influence of the Industrial Revolution. Parsons undertook this work by guided self-appraisal, analysis of work opportunities and matching self with those opportunities. Until the 1940s the work of counsellors still consisted primarily of developing better testing methods to assess people’s attributes and interests and collecting and publishing more occupational information. These tasks remain part of the work performed by counsellors today who work in student and career guidance. This type of counselling was referred to as ‘directive’ counselling or ‘trait-factor’ counselling as it matched personal traits to the requirements of jobs. There was little emphasis on feelings, this process being seen as a rational, thoughts-based process.

With the publication of Carl Rogers’ first book in 1942, the counselling profession was changed for ever. Rogers proposed the theory that the client was self-directing and had inner capabilities to know best how to manage his/her affairs. It was therefore not appropriate for the counsellor to be directive, and initially Rogers’ approach was labelled as ‘nondirective’ counselling. For the next twenty years, much debate occurred on which type of counselling was ‘right’. As Rogers had opened the door to the full range of human experience, counsellors looked further afield to theories which would help them work with their clients and became informed by the field of psychotherapy (Welfel & Patterson, 2005, p. 207).

Modern counsellors apply theories based in the cognitive/behavioural and affective domains – neither is right or wrong, application of various perspectives depending upon the client’s needs and the counsellor’s interest and skill sets. In Topic 4, some of these cognitive and affective theories were discussed. It is not possible in one unit to fully describe all the counselling theories – further reading is recommended and the recommended readings for this unit will give you a good start.

The discipline of psychology also influenced the focus of counselling towards more personal issues and became a major influence on modern counselling practice. Psychology offers various theories of how the human mind works and why we behave the way we do. Whilst generalist or professional counselling may be a relatively new practice, the associated discipline of psychology is known to have developed from 1879 (Todd & Bohart, 1999). More recently, social work practices and a focus on well-being, interpersonal relationships and the importance of the socio-political climate have influenced counselling theory. Counselling is now practiced in many different areas. For one historical viewpoint on the origins of counselling, refer to the following reading from Colin Feltham.

Concepts of professionalism

It is interesting to note how different people describe a profession, and how our concepts have changed over time. In previous decades in Australia, the labour force was simplistically divided into ‘blue collar’ workers and ‘white collar’ workers. Being a white collar worker in those times seemed to afford the non-manual worker more status and esteem. Society delineated more hierarchical structures with the privilege of the wearing of a ‘white coat’ by doctors and medical specialists. Optometrists wore a ‘blue coat’ – perhaps not quite up there with doctors, but nevertheless they were a ‘profession’. Phrases such as ‘white collar’ and ‘white coat’ are interpreted somewhat differently now, including the attachment of some negative connotations to these titles.

Some doctors attach a caveat to blood-pressure readings advising that it is a ‘white coat reading’ – acknowledging that anxiety causes tension and therefore an increase in a patient’s blood pressure (March-Smith, 2005, p. 65). A white coat has been cited as a metaphor for power, however, one GP (Clarke, 2005 cited in March-Smith, p. 65) states that the power and status accorded to the wearer of a white coat acknowledges the vulnerability of patients and their expectations of the therapeutic relationship. Clarke describes the paternalistic role of the white coat which encourages the transference effect between the patient and the ‘good Daddy’ (March-Smith, 2005, p. 66). Issues of power were further discussed in Topic 9 when we considered how clients are assessed, and trust is certainly an integral component of the therapeutic relationship.

At this stage it is worth noting that just the wearing of a certain item of clothing is not what makes a person a professional. Most counsellors would probably feel very strange in a white coat, and it is inappropriate to ‘overdress’ as this negatively impacts on building the therapeutic relationship. Understanding of the clients and the groups of clients with whom we work will give adequate guidance to the type of apparel we should choose. So let us now consider a more comprehensive approach to what makes a profession/professional.

Principles of a profession

We can distinguish a profession from non-professional and casual work by applying the following principles of what a profession should have:

• a specialised body of knowledge which is supported by theory-based research
• an established association
• accredited training programs, which are annually reviewed, for those aspiring to join the profession
• a Code of Ethics underpinning practice
• agreed standards for admitting and monitoring practitioners and processes for dealing with breaches to stated standards (Emener & Cottone, 1989; Gale & Austin, 2003; Pelling & Sullivan, 2006; Vacc & Loesch, 2000 cited in Sullivan, 2008).

Advocacy

Membership of a professional association is therefore a major measure of professionalism, but we are asked to do much more than this. Patrick (2007, p. 187–209) suggests that advocacy should be a major part of the counsellor’s role.

Through their professional training and their commitment to the ethical principle of beneficence (see Topic 11 for further discussion of the ethical principles), counsellors in their work are not only advocating for their clients and client groups with whom they work, but for the welfare of society as a whole and the reduction of human suffering. The influence of counsellor’s interactions with clients (not the confidential content of the sessions) trickles down into the community. The personal and professional characteristics of counsellors – sensitivity to client needs, ability to assess wholistically and assist clients to define goals, ability to implement research-based interventions, and evaluate outcomes – are the same characteristics which allow counsellors to be good advocates for their profession on the wider scale (Kisela & Robinson, 2001; Kurpius & Rozecki, 1992 cited in Patrick, 2007).

So as well as directly advocating for our clients and seeking to improve the welfare of our community, counsellors both formally and informally advocate for the helping professions. Some counsellors even become professional advocates. In this role they use varied strategies (e.g. use of the media) to lift the profile of the helping professions and influence legislature and credentialing. Probably only a minority of counsellors in current practice have the time and inclination to become media celebrities, so the advocacy role is often a component of the activity of the relevant professional association. Active membership of the association allows each individual member to advocate for the profession by:

• participating in special projects, public awareness and education campaigns arranged by the association
• taking on leadership roles in the association
• identifying consumer needs (e.g. mental health awareness) and starting projects which will link in with advocacy initiatives both for clients and the association
• forming special interest groups (e.g. working with homeless youth) linked to the association
• making presentations at conferences sponsored by the association
• publishing articles in professional publications and magazines
• serving on association committees working on advocacy initiatives
• using the media to represent a cause promoted by the association
• volunteering to assist at special events
• responding to ‘calls for action’ (adapted from Patrick, 2007, p. 197).

Consistent, effective work with clients within a community underpinned by research-based theoretical interventions and carried out with true empathy and understanding of the diversity of the human condition, may be the most effective continuing advocacy for the counselling profession.

Counselling as a vocation

Some other professions refer to a ‘calling’ to a certain vocation – e.g. priests, nurses, educators, natural therapists, people who work with animals. Perhaps you feel a calling to this profession. In Topic 3 on Self-Awareness we considered some of the reasons why people choose to become counsellors. McWilliams (2005, cited in Sullivan, 2008, p. 85) suggests it is very important for counsellor educators to oversee the personal and professional development of beginning counsellors. The profession of counselling is not for everyone – every therapeutic encounter with our clients changes us as well as the client. We need to consider how our values and world view will grow and change as we interact within the therapeutic relationship.

So perhaps counselling is more than a profession – for some it is a vocation, a passion which can last a lifetime and can be incorporated into the practice of other professions. McWilliams (2005, p. 140) adapted the work of Skovolt & Jennings, 2005 (cited in Sullivan, 2008, p. 85) to come up with the following definition of the counselling vocation:

to understand; to help; to speak the truth; to make a meaningful connection with our clients that fosters their sense of agency, their capacity for enjoyment and mastery, and their ability to tolerate grief and limitation, whether or not their behavior is unconventional and inconvenient according to ordinary cultural norms.

Does this sound like the type of vocation to which you aspire?

One psychotherapist who approaches his life-long work as a vocation is Irvin Yalom. See if you can identify his concept of his work being a privilege and passion in the following small excerpt from a recent text.

Challenges to professionalism

Gale & Austin (2003, p. 1) state that the profession of counselling is suffering from an identity crisis. These authors are based in the United States and continue to say that the achievement of professional status has led to the loss of a collective identity. There is greater diversity and less unity among persons who identify themselves as professional counsellors. This diversity has arisen as the result of:

• differences in training programs accredited by different accrediting bodies
• the need to adhere to different and sometimes conflicting codes of ethics
• an inability to explain how counsellors differ from psychologists and social workers
• licensing requirements differing according to geographical location
• acrimonious relationships between counsellors and psychologists
• opposition to the passage of professional counselling licensing law from other workers in the field of mental health
• an inability to clearly define a disciplinary base ‘somewhere between psychology and social work’ (Van Hesteren & Ivey, 1990, cited in Gale & Austin, 2003) or perhaps ‘between education and psychology. Its literature, theories, and role models come from these two disciplines’ (Weinrach, 1987, cited in Gale & Austin, 2003).
• different licensing requirements required for different areas of specialisation.

(adapted from Gale & Austin, 2003, p. 1–5)

Sounds familiar? The above challenges exist even after the authors state that professional status has been achieved. Such professional status is more defined than it is in Australia currently, so the process of achievement of professionalisation contains many challenges not only during the process, but also after a certain professional standing in the community has been accepted. The professional standing of counsellors, once acknowledged, does not then cease to become a work in progress. Improvements to knowledge and practices require ‘continuous professional development’ as obligatory in other professions, and counsellors must respond, perhaps more than some other professions, to societal, economic and political forces. All these issues are currently being addressed by stakeholders in the professionalisation process.

Competence

It is hoped that membership of a professional association automatically accords a level of competence to the member – but professional standing and competence are not exactly the same concepts. Usually in order to access professional membership, a prospective member has been required to present himself/herself as a fit and proper person to join the profession, and it is likely that prospective members are judged to be competent. If indeed as professionals we are competent, it does not automatically follow that without a disciplined approach to reflexivity we will retain our competence. It is unclear whether counsellor competence can be measured with reliability and validity (Pelling, Bowers & Armstrong, 2007, p. 41) and it may be easier to recognise and measure incompetence. Competence as a counsellor contains two components:

• the mastery of a set of skills

as well as

• the values, philosophy and personal attributes of the counsellor.

(adapted from McLeod, 1992, cited in Pelling, Bowers & Armstrong, 2007, p. 41)

There are many recommended skill sets for counsellors – one very simple model encourages us to self-assess our competence by identifying current strengths and weaknesses in the following areas:

• developing the relationship and clarifying problems
• assessing and restating the problems in skills terms
• stating goals and planning interventions
• intervening to develop life skills
• emphasising take-away of skills and ending (Nelson-Jones, R, 1997, p. 498).

The second area of competence relating more to the personal attributes of the counsellor requires us to commit to a continuous process of self analysis. In our role we take on a commitment to ‘check in’ with ourselves about our reasons for doing what we are doing, the quality of our practice, recognition and application of ethical principles and very importantly, whether we are approaching the boundary to our current level of competence. The issue of self-awareness is a vital one for counsellors – boundaries of competence is one aspect of our practice on which we need to reflect, (we considered this and similar issues in more depth in Topic 3). Regulation and assessment from others may occur, however, counsellors need to be self-regulatory, and to welcome this process as a joyful adjunct to their professional work.

Assessment of competence from an external source may be used for differing reasons and the tools used will vary. Such tools include questionnaires, rating scales, role-play exercises, journals, exams, video/audio tapes (McLeod, 2003, cited in Pelling, Bowers & Armstrong, 2007, p. 41). Our competence can be assessed by different people such as our supervisor or manager, an external judge or our peers. There are many variables in how this can be approached and, as we have learned, competence is difficult to measure. Given that competence is so important, and not formally regulated in Australia, it is a necessary practice for counsellors to honestly and completely conduct self-assessment, with the input of peers and supervisors if available. And there is one more very valuable source of information on our competence – our client! It is useful at the beginning of the counselling process to identify ways in which feedback from the client can be incorporated into the process so that you know client needs are being met, and can assess your level of competence in skill development and approaches to the therapeutic relationship. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to approach a client who has ‘voted with their feet’ and left the therapeutic relationship.

Professional credentialling in Australia

Although counsellors in Australia are not required to be licensed as they are in many states in the United States, there has been a considerable lift in awareness on the part of the Australian public of the value of counselling as one of the recognised helping professions. As a response to this recognition, and also prompted by the interest of other stakeholders, a credentialling process is currently underway. There is definitely more than one professional association from which to choose when seeking credentials, and it is up to the prospective member or student to decide which association may be more appropriate for their future career, personal and professional needs. Professional associations provide many useful services to their members and on the other side of the equation, rely on active input from members to fully participate in a range of activities to raise the profile of the profession as a whole.

Growth in community awareness

We understood from the historical perspectives discussed at the beginning of this topic that there has certainly been debate on the origins of counselling and where it seems to fit in (or perhaps conflict) with some of the other helping professions. Research was conducted by Prof. Chris Sharpley in 1986 which found that the respondents were confused about the similarities/differences in the therapeutic work undertaken by counsellors, psychiatrists, psychologists and social workers. Sharpley and some colleagues then completed another study much later in 2004 where it was found that the respondents had quite a good idea of the role and function of counsellors (Sharpley, Bond & Agnew, 2004, p. 106 cited in Sullivan, 2008, p. 11), perceiving their activities to be ‘listening, supporting, and problem solving’. A large percentage of the respondents noted a need for more counsellors in the community, and considered that counsellors were the professionals with whom they would best communicate and to whom they would be most likely to refer a friend. This is good news for students in the field of counselling – due to its diverse applications and growing acceptance as a profession in the Australian community, counsellors have very good prospects for continued employment.

Defining credentials

A credential is an official documentation which an individual holds which describes a title, quality or a right. When you complete your degree at Southern Cross University you will hold a credential, and some of you will already have other sets of credentials. Credentials are used by the community to identify people who meet certain skills levels set by the profession. This gives a better service to the public and is said to also protect members of the profession. Members of the public accessing credentialled counsellors assume that they have a shared knowledge, certain recognised skills and standards of practice (Pelling et. al., 2005).

Pathways to credentialling

There are three main pathways to credentialling.

Academic program accreditation:

• provides standards for training programs
• involves an association or agency which grants recognition to an education provider who has met certain established qualifications or standards
• general agreement that educational standards may be a good benchmark, but some concern regarding which groups have a mandate for determining appropriateness of a university curriculum and monitoring the quality of design and delivery
• there is no widely accepted evidence which proves that professionally trained therapists are more effective than paraprofessionals
• competence may come from innate ability and lived experience
• high levels of academic training in counselling are not necessary to provide the kind of interpersonal relationship needed for counselling success
• accreditation can stifle innovation in education and training as providers are pre-occupied with meeting accreditation standards
• accreditation also overlooks the research components needed for a body of knowledge – a requirement of a profession.

BUT, as inadequate as it may be, training standards are the best measure of competence available at present.

Certification and register lists:

• although voluntary, become similar to statutory if popular enough with the public
• certification is title control as it grants recognition of competence but does not confer authority to practice
• certification generally documents education, experience and skills
• register listing identifies to the consumer professional practitioners who provide services
• register listing brings with it a barrier between those on the register and those not and encourages public use of some professionals and reduces the amount of service provided by others
• being on a register list is similar to certification in that it is a recognition of competence.

Statutory regulation:

• a credential controlled by the government that regulates either the title or practice or both of a professional group
• often opposed due to concerns over restraint of trade
• enacted to protect the public but also benefits the profession by enhancing public image and recognition
• not likely to be a form of credentialling in Australia in the near future as self-regulation is the preferred model.

(Pelling et al. 2005, (DVD), An introduction to credentialling issues in counselling and some main counselling groups in Australia, University of South Australia)

A critique of credentialling

The argument for credentialling:

Counselling is unique as a helping profession as it is based on a model of human growth and development, and is not based on medical model. It seeks to give its skills though the counselling relationship to the bulk of the population. At present it is up to the client to assess incompetence and withdraw from the service. This places an unfair burden on clients at times of emotional vulnerability. The most vulnerable in society need to be protected. Credentialling gains recognition and payment from third parties

The argument against credentialling:

The public has the power to control professionals by refusing to pay for services. Counselling lacks sufficient specificity to secure a role with the public and other professionals. The public is not dependent on counselling in the same way as some other professions (e.g. medical practitioners) and so does not need protection.

Professionalism movements are driven by their own members who can too easily concerned with their own advancement at the expense of service users.

Professionals often raise standards and barriers to enter professions which results in:

• restricting the supply of practitioners
• setting higher standards than necessary
• inflating the cost of services
• making it more difficult for volunteers and paraprofessionals
• discriminating against disadvantaged groups by setting a high cost to education and training
• encouraging uniformity and mediocrity as unique services are not covered by various forms of credentialling.

(Pelling et al., 2005 (DVD), An introduction to credentialing issues in counselling and some main counselling groups in Australia, University of South Australia)

Summary

It is clear from the two topics that you have now read that counselling is not a field of endeavour which is easily categorised. In this topic we have defined a profession and understood that vibrant membership of our professional association is required to lift the profile of our chosen field. We have understood that there is a counsellor credentialling process underway in Australia. We have become aware of some current critiques and acknowledged that even when the process is complete there may still be challenges to professional identity as is evident in the United States.

Even though it takes some time to come to grips with these concepts which are somewhat difficult to define, it is valuable to try to understand some of the historical and societal contextual perspectives. An appreciation of where we have come from and where we are going as professionals in Australia enhances our work with our clients and our relationships within our community. As we have now learned, we will not become counsellors with just the competent application of a set of skills.