Objectives

At the completion of this topic, you should be able to:

• demonstrate cultural intentionality in counselling
• reflect on the influences of your own cultural background
• clarify the concept of social constructionism.

Introduction

In this topic we will consider how contemporary theories and worldviews have influenced current practices of counselling. In particular we will discuss multi-cultural issues, which now involve obligatory reading for all counselling approaches. We will also discuss social constructionism as the foundational theory of most contemporary counselling approaches. We have noted the importance of cultural awareness through the unit but the importance of this for all counsellors cannot be overemphasised. Thus we devote a whole topic to this here. You may find some repetition in content as you move through this topic – but that is fine and demonstrates its significance.

A current worldview: Social constructionism

It is important to consider the distinction between the objective and subjective worldview. The quantitative approach is concerned with ‘truth’, which can be known objectively by measuring and counting ‘things’. In contrast the subjective, qualitative worldview poses that it is impossible to see things or reality unmediated by one’s personal, subjective perspective. In this section we will go one step further and discuss how social constructionism looks at the way we and our social environment ‘construct’ and are ‘constructed’ in an ongoing, interactive process of language (Payne in Milner & O’Byrne, 2002: 19).

Maybe a good metaphor for this view of the social world is an orchestra, where the musical ‘soundscape’ emerges in a creative process. Taking this metaphor further, there could be a conductor and players, a written piece of music, or an improvisation; all depending on the key you are playing in, the instruments contributing to this and the skill and creativity of the individual players. Add to this the contextual influences of culture and history, the socio-political factors and the time-frame, and you begin to understand that notions of self may not be as stable and simple as you thought.

Contextual issues in counselling

We also have discussed that Carl Rogers’ humanistic theory forms the basis of most current counselling practices; an approach to counselling which strives to create client autonomy and a more equal relationship. The emphasis in counselling practice up till now, however, was strongly focused on individual well-being, achievement and growth. Although the three major psychological theories regarding human nature, as described in the previous topic, still influence our understanding and thus our practice, current developments have moved away from the exclusive focus on the individual.

Contextual issues, family, nature and relationships were seen as important contributions to well-being, therefore providing us with a more wholistic view of human nature. Our relationship to the people around us, the social and cultural environment in which we are embedded and the natural world, it is now posed, influence to a great degree who we are and how we position ourselves (and of course are positioned) in the world. This systemic view of human functioning acknowledges the interrelatedness of human functioning in the world (Hackney & Cormier, 2005: 259).

Imagine growing up in Africa or in Western Sydney, or being male instead of female (or the other way around): How would you be different, or, for that matter, the same? This inquiry really asks us to look deep into ourselves, in who we are and how we construct ourselves and others (or don’t we?), and how we are constructed in an ongoing, ever-changing process.

Dominant narratives

And if this is not already complicated enough, social constructionism asks us to look at how this ongoing process of construction is played out. The inquiry in how we construct and are constructed by our reality is called ‘deconstructing’ the issue or event. One major vehicle we use for constructing our reality is language. The rules for this lie within the so-called ‘language game’ and who or what does determine the meaning we make from the stories we use or have access too. Is it a level playing field and are we all equally well equipped to play? We only have to look at politics and the media to know that some people have more influence and are much more dominant than others. Milner and O’Byrne (2003: 19) state that many ordinary people, especially minority groups, ‘are seen as being disempowered by dominant narratives’. You may be able to see multicultural issues from a new perspective now that you may realise more fully that we are not all born equal.

The theoretical perspective of social constructionism is complex, and you may wonder what it all means. You will meet these concepts throughout most of the units in the Social Science degree, and I am sure that it will become clearer in time. For now it is important to look at the implications this worldview has for counselling.

A challenging concept

In the previous chapter we introduced the three major historical influences in counselling and gave particular attention to the humanistic or person-centred approach. Contemporary approaches to counselling influenced by social constructionism are a long way removed from the romantic ideal of helping people to do better for themselves, with our expert help. It may involve that you have to set aside all your ideas about the nature of reality and seriously contemplate how ‘real’ reality is. This is very challenging and I urge you to do this gently; do not throw the baby out with the bathwater.

Cultural diversity

What is culture?

As you have learned just now, in the social constructionist worldview expectations about the role of the counsellor, indeed, about counselling itself are greatly influenced by culture and social background. Culture in the context discussed here does not only mean nationality. It has a broad meaning and includes such things as lifestyle, social differences, language, norms, and mores, to name but a few. All living and human experience occurs within a cultural context, which has a powerful impact on human behaviour. Thus, some of the reasons why we have become the people we are, are because of the cultural settings in which we were raised and live. In other words, culture is the construction of ‘the way we do things around here’ and is passed on from one generation to the next.

The following description may help you to understand culture from a different viewpoint: All human beings have to die, that is natural and biologically determined; we cannot live forever. But how we feel about dying, what rituals surround our death and what we believe will happen after death is determined by our culture.

Our cultural experiences may restrict the range of possibilities we see for ourselves and other people in any given situation. Some would argue that this is a largely unconscious response and can pose quite a problem for a counsellor who is unaware of it. People who have had limited exposure to or experience with other cultural groups often have limited understanding of cultural diversity. In some parts of Australia there are very few people from differing cultural groups and yet other communities may resemble a meeting of the United Nations.

Culture and values

As in our personal, private life, counselling too is very much informed by cultural values and beliefs. It is not surprising that predominantly white, male psychologists developed the major theories underpinning counselling and that there is a real danger of ‘cultural encapsulation’. This means that this culturally dominant approach to counselling is not only evident, but is also largely ignored, because it is something like stating the obvious (Hays, 2001, p. 40). It is said that fish don’t know the water they are swimming in. In counselling this could mean, for example, that individualistic values and achievements are considered normal. However, these individualistic values, and many others, may not apply to clients from a different cultural background.

Culture and counselling

Cultural diversity applies to both the counsellor and the client. The counsellor, having been brought up in one cultural system, may have difficulty seeing some options for behaviour change either within him/herself or within the client. Also, interpersonal communication norms vary from one culture to another, and counsellors must be culturally sensitive to be able to relate to the client in a professional and culturally appropriate manner. Clients may have difficulty expressing their needs and also have a limited view of the possible opportunities open to them, which may be in part a result of their cultural background.

You can see that our cultural values are extremely important to us and they pervade every facet of our lives. The significance of these values is best identified through the experience of living in or visiting other cultures. This may not be a viable option for many of us. Therefore it is important to read as much as you can about this and explore your own cultural awareness and sensitivity.

Cultural differences

Language

We have already seen that cultural differences pertain to the counsellor and to the client. These differences include the way we use language and which meanings we attach to certain words and phrases. In a culture where self-reflection is not usually encouraged issues such as ‘awareness’ and ‘unconsciousness’ will have little meaning. In fact, a counselling emphasis on these issues may not have much meaning either. Your client may have difficulty speaking the language, let alone being able to express themselves clearly in that language. In some cases it may be necessary to have an interpreter and you can imagine how much more complicated this becomes for all involved.

Non-verbal behaviour

As discussed, non-verbal messages may be culturally specific. This goes for eye contact, touch or even the comfortable distance between the counsellor and the client. It may not be appropriate for females to counsel males or the other way around. If in doubt, make sure to ask, or seek advice of a key figure in that particular culture. Geldard and Geldard (2009) include many other issues which can be influenced by cultural differences, e.g. relationship issues, how decisions are made and of course our understanding of spirituality.

You may not always be able to know everything about every culture but you can seek the information you need by reading, or simply by asking questions from relevant sources. And do remember that the most relevant source may be your client, after all he or she must be an expert on this! Of course, when your involvement with one particular culture is extensive you may extend your knowledge through becoming involved in social events and gatherings.

The section on cultural self-assessment is very interesting; it gives you an excellent opportunity to assess your personal cultural profile. Most of us are very privileged indeed!

Be honest in self-reflection

It is important to note that the maximum learning, which you can achieve in this and other counselling units, is totally dependent upon your own honesty with yourself. It is impossible to accurately ‘test’ your learning in this unit as so much depends on your own personal development. However, those of you who seriously wish to work in the field of counselling/social welfare are advised strongly to utilise every opportunity presented in the course materials.

The cultural profile, as presented by Hays (2001), is a very challenging concept, which leaves no doubt about privileges and how easy it is to experience oneself at the centre of the universe. From this attitude comes the belief that we know how ‘things should be done around here’ and a feeling of superiority and cultural arrogance. This is often reflected in images of international tourism, where the Western way is superimposed, e.g. dress code, on a culture that regards these issues in a very different light.

Towards a cultural intentionality

Ivey and Ivey (2003: 20) introduced the term cultural intentionality, which they explain as the ability to act and respond towards your client consciously ‘adapting your style to suit different individuals and cultures’. At the same time this means that it is really important not to generalise cultural responses. Often depicted as stereotyping, this can be experienced as patronising or condescending. The most important skill for a counsellor is to be able to recognise one’s own limitations and to ask for support from your client when exploring their cultural background. They are the experts!

As discussed before, Pederson (2003) explains that culture goes a lot deeper than the colour of your skin. It can also denote belonging to different groups, e.g. religious affiliations, or even belonging to a bikie-gang. From these examples you can already begin to imagine the difference in how language is used and understood, the different value systems and ways of being in the world. Imagine a bikie counselling a bank manager, or vice versa. A lot of attention and energy would have to be given to being open, unbiased and respectful of each other’s contextual issues. This is precisely what a counsellor needs to do, and the first step is to become aware of where we are coming from so that we can keep an eye upon our judgements, expectations and approaches to clients from different backgrounds.

Strengths in spiritual beliefs

There is one more issue that I would like to mention, mainly because it has not been discussed before. Spiritual and religious beliefs, whether Christian, Muslim, Eastern or New Age, can be a major source of strength for a person. Canda and Furman (2001: 67) mention three core understandings of spirituality:

• a search for meaning from a sacred realm
• core integration of one’s beliefs and values
• a search for connection and love.

Spiritual support can replace or complement the lack of support that may exist in daily life. It goes without saying that cultural differences and individual preferences need the utmost respect and acceptance. Counselling can strengthen one’s beliefs and practices without using religion-based, specific and expert administration of the articles of faith. All it needs is unconditional positive regard and openness to different expressions of spiritual and religious needs.

Many clients will find great comfort in talking about their spiritual needs. This may be especially true for Aboriginal Australians (Geldard & Geldard, 2009). However, be careful, do not assume just because someone is Aboriginal, or Chinese or whatever, that you can assume these things, which is a form of stereotyping!

Also be careful not to ‘lay trips’ on your clients; it is not your role to recommend visits to a certain church or to recommend meditation, unless this becomes part of the conversation or is explicitly asked for by your client. And it also means that you should refer your client on to the appropriate clergy or chaplain, when your expertise in these matters are limited or special help is necessary.

Summary

Congratulations, you made it to. I really enjoy the challenges and opportunities that come from contemplating different perspectives, worldviews and beliefs. But it is hard work and you learned about one of the most important and most complex theories of contemporary thought, social constructionism. This perspective questions the centrality of rugged individualism and the stable construct of the personality. It shows how strongly we may be influenced by our environment and culture. Maybe now you can appreciate why it is important in counselling to become aware of your own values, beliefs and worldviews.