Commas
A comma is a small break or pause in a sentence. It is used to group words, phrases and clauses within a sentence. Used correctly, commas enhance meaning and message delivery.
Commas in lists
Use commas to separate items in a simple list within a sentence:
I bought tomatoes, bananas, a cucumber and some apples.
Commas are also used to separate multiple adjectives in a sentence. The comma is generally only required between adjectives of the same type.
The bear was very large, hairy, brown and fierce. (large, hairy and brown are descriptive adjectives so commas are used to separate them)
James ate six plump oysters. (two different types of adjectives are used here: six is a numeral adjective; plump is an evaluative adjective, so no commas are needed)
Then he ordered an expensive full-bodied vintage champagne. (no commas are used because expensive is an evaluative adjective; full-bodied is a descriptive adjective; and vintage is definitive)
Commas in clauses
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb. Commas are used to separate clauses from other words, phrases and clauses in the sentence.
For example, your research could consider the impact of climate change on penguin populations.
Large, overbearing and blustering, Mel's new boss asserted his authority at every possible opportunity.
Honestly, I couldn’t stand the heat.
Tom’s house, which took us ages to find, was down a narrow backstreet.
You could stay with us or, if you prefer, there are several good hotels nearby.
If you think you can do it better, why don’t you give it a go?
In the end, even though I wasn’t entirely convinced by her arguments, I capitulated.
Commas in non-defining clauses
Take particular care with using commas to set apart non-defining clauses. A non-defining clause is incidental or additional information. If a non-defining clause is removed, the sentence still makes sense.
My eldest son, who is 20, is enrolled in a business degree at uni. (‘who is 20’ is incidental/additional information, so use commas at the start and end of the clause)
All the musicians, who are now members of the union, will be given six weeks back pay. (‘who are now members of the union’ is additional information, so use commas)
Commas are not used for defining clauses:
All the musicians who are now members of the union will be given six weeks back pay. (only musicians who have joined the union will receive back pay is essential information, so no commas needed)
Colons
A colon is used in a sentence to introduce explanatory information or a list of items.
Sorry, I didn’t hear your call: I was inside a noisy, crowded bus.
I didn’t trust her: that phoney laugh, the whispers when I turned away …
Three ships left the dock this morning: Sirius, Enterprise and Southern Star.
A colon is not needed when a list follows on naturally within a sentence:
The essay must include an introduction, a strong body of argument, a conclusion, and a comprehensive reference list.
A colon can also be used to introduce a block quotation:
Davidson (2012, p. 32) asserts there are notable autobiographical elements in Tomlinson’s plays:
Characters in Tomlinson’s plays can be seen as representations of his family members. Rosa Kazan in The End of Summer was modelled on Tomlinson’s sister Blanche. Vivien in Circus Tropes is thought to represent his mother Winny. Characters such as Bill Davis and Eugene Miller share many traits …
Semicolons
Semicolons are used to join two independent clauses that are closely linked in meaning:
He failed to meet the deadline; it’s unlikely his contract will be renewed.
A semicolon is also used to separate items within a sentence list that already contains commas:
The delegates are from Tokyo, Kyoto and Hiroshima in Japan; Rome, Florence and Sienna in Italy; and Vienna, Austria.
Full stops
Used at the end of sentences. Do not insert a double space after a full stop.
Exclamation marks
Used to denote surprise or similar expression of heightened emotion:
Well done! No way, that can’t be right!
Do not use exclamation marks too frequently. Too many, especially in a short piece of writing, can be irritating to read and lose their impact.
Apostrophes
The apostrophe is used to indicate letters are missing from a word:
don’t haven’t mustn’t you’re
The apostrophe is also used to show possession. In singular words, the apostrophe comes before the ‘s’:
Sam’s dog teacher’s pen tomorrow’s schedule
In plural words, the apostrophe comes after the ‘s’:
the Smiths’ house our students’ welfare the teachers’ pens
In nonpossessive phrases, the apostrophe is left out:
drivers licence farmers markets members lounge
The possessive apostrophe can also be omitted from plural expressions of time:
nine months time two weeks pay the 1940s
However, singular references to time should use an apostrophe:
a day’s wage an hour’s march
Hyphens
A hyphen (-) is used to join words with a combined meaning (compound words); to prevent misreading in words formed with a prefix; or to indicate a word connection (hanging hyphens).
Hyphens in compound words
Most compound words that we commonly use are not hyphenated:
keyboard matchstick input downside sidewalk
Some formations of compound words can be ambiguous so a hyphen is used to clarify meaning:
- well-considered plan foreign-owned investments small-leaved geranium evidence-based practice
- (these are compound adjectives)
If the adjective comes after the noun, a hyphen isn’t needed:
The plan was well considered.
Compound adjectives with numbers are hyphenated:
three-year-old son 5-litre container six-storey building
Adverbial phrases are hyphenated:
up-to-date records door-to-door salesperson surface-to-air missile
Compounds created with adverbs ending with -ly are not hyphenated:
freshly baked cookies beautifully executed manoeuvre badly designed furniture overly protective parents
Hyphens in prefixes
A prefix is part of a word placed before another word to modify its meaning, e.g. anti-, dis-, -un, -ex. Prefixes that end in a vowel placed before a word starting with a vowel can be difficult to read so a hyphen is added to the formation:
re-establish (not reestablish) semi-industrious (not semiidustrious)
Also some prefix formations are ambiguous, so a hyphen prevents misreading:
re-cover/recover re-press/repress re-sign/resign
It is not always necessary to hyphenate certain words in common usage:
cooperate antidepressants coordinate
Hanging hyphens
Also called floating hyphens, hanging hyphens are used to connect two words to a base (shared) word:
part- or full-time positions pre- and post-operative care
The rules on hyphenation can be confusing; use a dictionary if in doubt.
Dash/En dash
Not to be confused with a hyphen (-), the dash (–) is used to signify an abrupt change; to introduce amplification or explanation; to indicate a parenthetical statement; and to link words and spans of figures.
Abrupt change
There was that one time – but we won’t talk about that.
I’ve decided that it’s best if we – no, sorry, I’ve changed my mind.
Amplification or explanation
You may notice changes in her behaviour – for example, anxious thoughts, wakefulness, an inability to concentrate.
Parenthetical expression
Please use a consistent referencing system – Harvard, for example – for both in-text citations and reference lists.
Linking words
The dash shows an association between two words that retain separate identities:
Asia–Pacific region father–daughter relationship Rabbitohs–Roosters match
Spans of figures
The dash replaces to:
40–50 years pages 230–46 700 BC – 30 AD
Note, the en dash (–) is wider than a hyphen and narrower than an em dash (—). The en dash sometimes carries a space on either side (see examples above). The em dash (which is the preferred variation in some publications) is usually unspaced.
Forward slash
The forward slash is used to show alternatives and as a substitute for ‘per’, ‘an’ or ‘a’:
and/or he/she yes/no 100 km/h
Ellipsis
An ellipsis (three full stops) is usually used to indicate missing words from a quotation:
Entrepreneurs have developed a phone app for roadside assistance and … customers will pay only when they use it.
If an entire paragraph is omitted from a block quotation, the ellipsis is placed on a line of its own:
Seven eminent scientists review Australia’s carbon emissions policy as the Paris Agreement reaches a historic turning point.
…
The panel of experts has warned that the Agreement will fail unless carbon dioxide emissions are reduced by twenty-five per cent over the next five to ten years.
Ellipsis points can also be used to signify indecision or incompleteness:
‘No … no … please, not now.’
‘Well, if that’s what you think …’
Quotation marks
Also called speech marks or inverted commas, quotation marks are used to show direct speech; quoted work of other writers; and to indicate irony, or unusual or unfamiliar words. Some publications, including this style guide, use single quote marks for initial quotations, then double quote marks for quotes within quotes. The US convention is to use double quote marks for initial quotations, then single quote marks for quotes within quotes.
Quote marks in direct speech
In the US, commas and full stops are placed inside the quote marks:
“Not so,” he declared. “That’s not how it happened.”
In the UK, commas and full stops go inside the quote marks only for a complete stand-alone sentence; otherwise they go outside.
‘Well, tell me your version. Keep it brief though.’
‘Such is life’, said Ned, as he stood before the gallows.
Quotes within quotes
‘I have some excellent news!’ he exclaimed. ‘Her text says: “All’s well. Will be on the 5 pm flight.” Isn’t that great?’
Quoted works
Read the article ‘Understanding language’.
Her first essay, ‘Dark matters’, was an outstanding success; her second attempt – a short poem entitled ‘Lotus-eaters’ – was less well received.
Quote marks for irony, emphasis or unfamiliar terms
The ‘policy’ has been examined in some detail; it failed to deliver expected outcomes.
The department has expressed their ‘grave concern’ over the missing documents.
What do you understand by the term ‘hydrophobic’?
Quote marks in short quotes
Short quotes (less than 30 words) can be included within the paragraph but take care to use to the correct syntax (arrangement of words in a sentence) to introduce the quote:
As Rene Scott (2015) noted, ‘Ned Kelly is purported to have said “Such is life” as he stood before the gallows’.
Long quotes
Quotes that run over three or more lines are placed in a separate indented paragraph called a block quotation or extract. The quote marks are omitted and the text is typically differentiated from the text using a different colour or font size.
Brackets
Brackets are used to enclose words in a sentence.
Parentheses
Also called round brackets, parentheses are used in a sentence to add comments, asides and definitions. In some cases, commas and en dashes (or em dashes) can be used to give a similar effect.
The esteemed scientist Mathew Dundas (who, incidentally, was the founding member of this school) contributed greatly to our body of knowledge …
The camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora) is often considered a scourge …
The match was cancelled by the BCCI (Board of Cricket Control in India). Officials from BCCI declared that …
Brackets are also used for in-text citations:
Renauld, Baker and Harvey (2015, p. 42) describe …
Square brackets
Square brackets are used to show editorial insertions. They are designed to clarify, to add information or emphasis:
Johnathon’s parents owned a house at Shelly Beach [Ballina, NSW] then moved …
The quarterly report from the National Disability Scheme (NDIS) shows the scheme is facing significant challenges and is unlikely to achieve even half of the estimated enrolments for the current financial year. [emphasis added]
Note, the word sic inside square brackets [sic] is used to show that something was incorrectly written and is intentionally being left as it was in the original:
Tamzin, a first-time entrant in the competition, sent a message to her agent: ‘I’m just so wrapped [sic] to win this amazing award!’